Scala 3 — Book

Control Structures

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Scala has the control structures you expect to find in a programming language, including:

if/then/else
for loops
while loops
try/catch/finally

It also has two other powerful constructs that you may not have seen before, depending on your programming background:

for expressions (also known as for comprehensions)
match expressions

These are all demonstrated in the following sections.

The if/then/else construct

A one-line Scala if statement looks like this:

if (x == 1) println(x)

if x == 1 then println(x)

When you need to run multiple lines of code after an if equality comparison, use this syntax:

if (x == 1) {
  println("x is 1, as you can see:")
  println(x)
}

if x == 1 then
  println("x is 1, as you can see:")
  println(x)

The if/else syntax looks like this:

if (x == 1) {
  println("x is 1, as you can see:")
  println(x)
} else {
  println("x was not 1")
}

if x == 1 then
  println("x is 1, as you can see:")
  println(x)
else
  println("x was not 1")

And this is the if/else if/else syntax:

if (x < 0)
  println("negative")
else if (x == 0)
  println("zero")
else
  println("positive")

if x < 0 then
  println("negative")
else if x == 0 then
  println("zero")
else
  println("positive")

`end if` statement

This is new in Scala 3, and not supported in Scala 2.

You can optionally include an end if statement at the end of each expression, if you prefer:

if x == 1 then
  println("x is 1, as you can see:")
  println(x)
end if

`if`/`else` expressions always return a result

Note that if/else comparisons form expressions, meaning that they return a value which you can assign to a variable. Because of this, there’s no need for a special ternary operator:

val minValue = if (a < b) a else b

val minValue = if a < b then a else b

Because they return a value, you can use if/else expressions as the body of a method:

def compare(a: Int, b: Int): Int =
  if (a < b)
    -1
  else if (a == b)
    0
  else
    1

def compare(a: Int, b: Int): Int =
  if a < b then
    -1
  else if a == b then
    0
  else
    1

Aside: Expression-oriented programming

As a brief note about programming in general, when every expression you write returns a value, that style is referred to as expression-oriented programming, or EOP. For example, this is an expression:

val minValue = if (a < b) a else b

val minValue = if a < b then a else b

Conversely, lines of code that don’t return values are called statements, and they’re used for their side-effects. For example, these lines of code don’t return values, so they’re used for their side effects:

if (a == b) action()
println("Hello")

if a == b then action()
println("Hello")

The first example runs the action method as a side effect when a is equal to b. The second example is used for the side effect of printing a string to STDOUT. As you learn more about Scala you’ll find yourself writing more expressions and fewer statements.

`for` loops

In its most simple use, a Scala for loop can be used to iterate over the elements in a collection. For example, given a sequence of integers, you can loop over its elements and print their values like this:

val ints = Seq(1, 2, 3)
for (i <- ints) println(i)

val ints = Seq(1, 2, 3)
for i <- ints do println(i)

The code i <- ints is referred to as a generator. In any generator p <- e, the expression e can generate zero or many bindings to the pattern p.

This is what the result looks like in the Scala REPL:

scala> val ints = Seq(1,2,3)
ints: Seq[Int] = List(1, 2, 3)

scala> for (i <- ints) println(i)
1
2
3

scala> val ints = Seq(1,2,3)
ints: Seq[Int] = List(1, 2, 3)

scala> for i <- ints do println(i)
1
2
3

When you need a multiline block of code following the for generator, use the following syntax:

for (i <- ints) {
  val x = i * 2
  println(s"i = $i, x = $x")
}

for i <- ints
do
  val x = i * 2
  println(s"i = $i, x = $x")

Multiple generators

for loops can have multiple generators, as shown in this example:

for {
  i <- 1 to 2
  j <- 'a' to 'b'
  k <- 1 to 10 by 5
} {
  println(s"i = $i, j = $j, k = $k")
}

for
  i <- 1 to 2
  j <- 'a' to 'b'
  k <- 1 to 10 by 5
do
  println(s"i = $i, j = $j, k = $k")

That expression prints this output:

i = 1, j = a, k = 1
i = 1, j = a, k = 6
i = 1, j = b, k = 1
i = 1, j = b, k = 6
i = 2, j = a, k = 1
i = 2, j = a, k = 6
i = 2, j = b, k = 1
i = 2, j = b, k = 6

Guards

for loops can also contain if statements, which are known as guards:

for {
  i <- 1 to 5
  if i % 2 == 0
} {
  println(i)
}

for
  i <- 1 to 5
  if i % 2 == 0
do
  println(i)

The output of that loop is:

2
4

A for loop can have as many guards as needed. This example shows one way to print the number 4:

for {
  i <- 1 to 10
  if i > 3
  if i < 6
  if i % 2 == 0
} {
  println(i)
}

for
  i <- 1 to 10
  if i > 3
  if i < 6
  if i % 2 == 0
do
  println(i)

Using `for` with Maps

You can also use for loops with a Map. For example, given this Map of state abbreviations and their full names:

val states = Map(
  "AK" -> "Alaska",
  "AL" -> "Alabama", 
  "AR" -> "Arizona"
)

You can print the keys and values using for, like this:

for ((abbrev, fullName) <- states) println(s"$abbrev: $fullName")

for (abbrev, fullName) <- states do println(s"$abbrev: $fullName")

Here’s what that looks like in the REPL:

scala> for ((abbrev, fullName) <- states) println(s"$abbrev: $fullName")
AK: Alaska
AL: Alabama
AR: Arizona

scala> for (abbrev, fullName) <- states do println(s"$abbrev: $fullName")
AK: Alaska
AL: Alabama
AR: Arizona

As the for loop iterates over the map, each key/value pair is bound to the variables abbrev and fullName, which are in a tuple:

(abbrev, fullName) <- states

As the loop runs, the variable abbrev is assigned to the current key in the map, and the variable fullName is assigned to the current map value.

`for` expressions

In the previous for loop examples, those loops were all used for side effects, specifically to print those values to STDOUT using println.

It’s important to know that you can also create for expressions that return values. You create a for expression by adding the yield keyword and an expression to return, like this:

val list =
  for (i <- 10 to 12)
  yield i * 2

// list: IndexedSeq[Int] = Vector(20, 22, 24)

val list =
  for i <- 10 to 12
  yield i * 2

// list: IndexedSeq[Int] = Vector(20, 22, 24)

After that for expression runs, the variable list is a Vector that contains the values shown. This is how the expression works:

The for expression starts to iterate over the values in the range (10, 11, 12). It first works on the value 10, multiplies it by 2, then yields that result, the value 20.
Next, it works on the 11—the second value in the range. It multiplies it by 2, then yields the value 22. You can think of these yielded values as accumulating in a temporary holding place.
Finally, the loop gets the number 12 from the range, multiplies it by 2, yielding the number 24. The loop completes at this point and yields the final result, the Vector(20, 22, 24).

While the intent of this section is to demonstrate for expressions, it can help to know that the for expression shown is equivalent to this map method call:

val list = (10 to 12).map(i => i * 2)

for expressions can be used any time you need to traverse all the elements in a collection and apply an algorithm to those elements to create a new list.

Here’s an example that shows how to use a block of code after the yield:

val names = List("_olivia", "_walter", "_peter")

val capNames = for (name <- names) yield { 
  val nameWithoutUnderscore = name.drop(1)
  val capName = nameWithoutUnderscore.capitalize
  capName
}

// capNames: List[String] = List(Olivia, Walter, Peter)

val names = List("_olivia", "_walter", "_peter")

val capNames = for name <- names yield
  val nameWithoutUnderscore = name.drop(1)
  val capName = nameWithoutUnderscore.capitalize
  capName

// capNames: List[String] = List(Olivia, Walter, Peter)

Using a `for` expression as the body of a method

Because a for expression yields a result, it can be used as the body of a method that returns a useful value. This method returns all the values in a given list of integers that are between 3 and 10:

def between3and10(xs: List[Int]): List[Int] =
  for {
    x <- xs
    if x >= 3
    if x <= 10
  } yield x

between3and10(List(1, 3, 7, 11))   // : List[Int] = List(3, 7)

def between3and10(xs: List[Int]): List[Int] =
  for
    x <- xs
    if x >= 3
    if x <= 10
  yield x

between3and10(List(1, 3, 7, 11))   // : List[Int] = List(3, 7)

`while` loops

Scala while loop syntax looks like this:

var i = 0

while (i < 3) {
  println(i)
  i += 1
}

var i = 0

while i < 3 do
  println(i)
  i += 1

`match` expressions

Pattern matching is a major feature of functional programming languages, and Scala includes a match expression that has many capabilities.

In the most simple case you can use a match expression like a Java switch statement, matching cases based on an integer value. Notice that this really is an expression, as it evaluates to a result:

// `i` is an integer
val day = i match {
  case 0 => "Sunday"
  case 1 => "Monday"
  case 2 => "Tuesday"
  case 3 => "Wednesday"
  case 4 => "Thursday"
  case 5 => "Friday"
  case 6 => "Saturday"
  case _ => "invalid day"   // the default, catch-all
}

// `i` is an integer
val day = i match
  case 0 => "Sunday"
  case 1 => "Monday"
  case 2 => "Tuesday"
  case 3 => "Wednesday"
  case 4 => "Thursday"
  case 5 => "Friday"
  case 6 => "Saturday"
  case _ => "invalid day"   // the default, catch-all

In this example, the variable i is tested against the cases shown. If it’s between 0 and 6, day is bound to the string that represents that day of the week. Otherwise, it matches the catch-all case represented by the character, _, and day is bound to the string, "invalid day".

Since the cases are considered in the order they are written, and the first matching case is used, the default case, which matches any value, must come last. Any cases after the catch-all will be warned as unreachable cases.

When writing simple match expressions like this, it’s recommended to use the @switch annotation on the variable i. This annotation provides a compile-time warning if the switch can’t be compiled to a tableswitch or lookupswitch, which are better for performance.

Using the default value

When you need to access the catch-all, default value in a match expression, just provide a variable name on the left side of the case statement instead of _, and then use that variable name on the right side of the statement as needed:

i match {
  case 0 => println("1")
  case 1 => println("2")
  case what => println(s"You gave me: $what")
}

i match
  case 0 => println("1")
  case 1 => println("2")
  case what => println(s"You gave me: $what")

The name used in the pattern must begin with a lowercase letter. A name beginning with an uppercase letter does not introduce a variable, but matches a value in scope:

val N = 42
i match {
  case 0 => println("1")
  case 1 => println("2")
  case N => println("42")
  case n => println(s"You gave me: $n" )
}

val N = 42
i match
  case 0 => println("1")
  case 1 => println("2")
  case N => println("42")
  case n => println(s"You gave me: $n" )

If i is equal to 42, then case N will match, and it will print the string "42". It won’t reach the default case.

Handling multiple possible matches on one line

As mentioned, match expressions have many capabilities. This example shows how to use multiple possible pattern matches in each case statement:

val evenOrOdd = i match {
  case 1 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 9 => println("odd")
  case 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 => println("even")
  case _ => println("some other number")
}

val evenOrOdd = i match
  case 1 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 9 => println("odd")
  case 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 => println("even")
  case _ => println("some other number")

Using `if` guards in `case` clauses

You can also use guards in the cases of a match expression. In this example the second and third case both use guards to match multiple integer values:

i match {
  case 1 => println("one, a lonely number")
  case x if x == 2 || x == 3 => println("two’s company, three’s a crowd")
  case x if x > 3 => println("4+, that’s a party")
  case _ => println("i’m guessing your number is zero or less")
}

i match
  case 1 => println("one, a lonely number")
  case x if x == 2 || x == 3 => println("two’s company, three’s a crowd")
  case x if x > 3 => println("4+, that’s a party")
  case _ => println("i’m guessing your number is zero or less")

Here’s another example, which shows how to match a given value against ranges of numbers:

i match {
  case a if 0 to 9 contains a => println(s"0-9 range: $a")
  case b if 10 to 19 contains b => println(s"10-19 range: $b")
  case c if 20 to 29 contains c => println(s"20-29 range: $c")
  case _ => println("Hmmm...")
}

i match
  case a if 0 to 9 contains a => println(s"0-9 range: $a")
  case b if 10 to 19 contains b => println(s"10-19 range: $b")
  case c if 20 to 29 contains c => println(s"20-29 range: $c")
  case _ => println("Hmmm...")

Case classes and match expressions

You can also extract fields from case classes—and classes that have properly written apply/unapply methods—and use those in your guard conditions. Here’s an example using a simple Person case class:

case class Person(name: String)

def speak(p: Person) = p match {
  case Person(name) if name == "Fred" => println(s"$name says, Yubba dubba doo")
  case Person(name) if name == "Bam Bam" => println(s"$name says, Bam bam!")
  case _ => println("Watch the Flintstones!")
}

speak(Person("Fred"))      // "Fred says, Yubba dubba doo"
speak(Person("Bam Bam"))   // "Bam Bam says, Bam bam!"

case class Person(name: String)

def speak(p: Person) = p match
  case Person(name) if name == "Fred" => println(s"$name says, Yubba dubba doo")
  case Person(name) if name == "Bam Bam" => println(s"$name says, Bam bam!")
  case _ => println("Watch the Flintstones!")

speak(Person("Fred"))      // "Fred says, Yubba dubba doo"
speak(Person("Bam Bam"))   // "Bam Bam says, Bam bam!"

Binding matched patterns to variables

You can bind the matched pattern to a variable to use type-specific behavior.

trait Animal {
  val name: String
}
case class Cat(name: String) extends Animal {
  def meow: String = "Meow"
}
case class Dog(name: String) extends Animal {
  def bark: String = "Bark"
}

def speak(animal: Animal) = animal match {
  case c @ Cat(name) if name == "Felix" => println(s"$name says, ${c.meow}!")
  case d @ Dog(name) if name == "Rex" => println(s"$name says, ${d.bark}!")
  case _ => println("I don't know you!")
}

speak(Cat("Felix")) // "Felix says, Meow!"
speak(Dog("Rex"))   // "Rex says, Bark!"

trait Animal:
  val name: String
case class Cat(name: String) extends Animal:
  def meow: String = "Meow"
case class Dog(name: String) extends Animal:
  def bark: String = "Bark"

def speak(animal: Animal) = animal match
  case c @ Cat(name) if name == "Felix" => println(s"$name says, ${c.meow}!")
  case d @ Dog(name) if name == "Rex" => println(s"$name says, ${d.bark}!")
  case _ => println("I don't know you!")

speak(Cat("Felix")) // "Felix says, Meow!"
speak(Dog("Rex"))   // "Rex says, Bark!"

Using a `match` expression as the body of a method

Because match expressions return a value, they can be used as the body of a method. This method takes a Matchable value as an input parameter, and returns a Boolean, based on the result of the match expression:

def isTruthy(a: Matchable) = a match {
  case 0 | "" | false => false
  case _              => true
}

def isTruthy(a: Matchable) = a match
  case 0 | "" | false => false
  case _              => true

The input parameter a is defined to be the Matchable type—which is the root of all Scala types that pattern matching can be performed on. The method is implemented by matching on the input, providing two cases: The first one checks whether the given value is either the integer 0, an empty string or false and returns false in this case. In the default case, we return true for any other value. These examples show how this method works:

isTruthy(0)      // false
isTruthy(false)  // false
isTruthy("")     // false
isTruthy(1)      // true
isTruthy(" ")    // true
isTruthy(2F)     // true

Using a match expression as the body of a method is a very common use.

Match expressions support many different types of patterns

There are many different forms of patterns that can be used to write match expressions. Examples include:

Constant patterns (such as case 3 => )
Sequence patterns (such as case List(els : _*) =>)
Tuple patterns (such as case (x, y) =>)
Constructor pattern (such as case Person(first, last) =>)
Type test patterns (such as case p: Person =>)

All of these kinds of patterns are shown in the following pattern method, which takes an input parameter of type Matchable and returns a String:

def pattern(x: Matchable): String = x match {

  // constant patterns
  case 0 => "zero"
  case true => "true"
  case "hello" => "you said 'hello'"
  case Nil => "an empty List"

  // sequence patterns
  case List(0, _, _) => "a 3-element list with 0 as the first element"
  case List(1, _*) => "list, starts with 1, has any number of elements"
  case Vector(1, _*) => "vector, starts w/ 1, has any number of elements"

  // tuple patterns
  case (a, b) => s"got $a and $b"
  case (a, b, c) => s"got $a, $b, and $c"

  // constructor patterns
  case Person(first, "Alexander") => s"Alexander, first name = $first"
  case Dog("Zeus") => "found a dog named Zeus"

  // type test patterns
  case s: String => s"got a string: $s"
  case i: Int => s"got an int: $i"
  case f: Float => s"got a float: $f"
  case a: Array[Int] => s"array of int: ${a.mkString(",")}"
  case as: Array[String] => s"string array: ${as.mkString(",")}"
  case d: Dog => s"dog: ${d.name}"
  case list: List[?] => s"got a List: $list"
  case m: Map[?, ?] => m.toString

  // the default wildcard pattern
  case _ => "Unknown"
}

def pattern(x: Matchable): String = x match

  // constant patterns
  case 0 => "zero"
  case true => "true"
  case "hello" => "you said 'hello'"
  case Nil => "an empty List"

  // sequence patterns
  case List(0, _, _) => "a 3-element list with 0 as the first element"
  case List(1, _*) => "list, starts with 1, has any number of elements"
  case Vector(1, _*) => "vector, starts w/ 1, has any number of elements"

  // tuple patterns
  case (a, b) => s"got $a and $b"
  case (a, b, c) => s"got $a, $b, and $c"

  // constructor patterns
  case Person(first, "Alexander") => s"Alexander, first name = $first"
  case Dog("Zeus") => "found a dog named Zeus"

  // type test patterns
  case s: String => s"got a string: $s"
  case i: Int => s"got an int: $i"
  case f: Float => s"got a float: $f"
  case a: Array[Int] => s"array of int: ${a.mkString(",")}"
  case as: Array[String] => s"string array: ${as.mkString(",")}"
  case d: Dog => s"dog: ${d.name}"
  case list: List[?] => s"got a List: $list"
  case m: Map[?, ?] => m.toString

  // the default wildcard pattern
  case _ => "Unknown"

try/catch/finally

Like Java, Scala has a try/catch/finally construct to let you catch and manage exceptions. For consistency, Scala uses the same syntax that match expressions use and supports pattern matching on the different possible exceptions that can occur.

In the following example, openAndReadAFile is a method that does what its name implies: it opens a file and reads the text in it, assigning the result to the mutable variable text:

var text = ""
try {
  text = openAndReadAFile(filename)
} catch {
  case fnf: FileNotFoundException => fnf.printStackTrace()
  case ioe: IOException => ioe.printStackTrace()
} finally {
  // close your resources here
  println("Came to the 'finally' clause.")
}

var text = ""
try
  text = openAndReadAFile(filename)
catch
  case fnf: FileNotFoundException => fnf.printStackTrace()
  case ioe: IOException => ioe.printStackTrace()
finally
  // close your resources here
  println("Came to the 'finally' clause.")

Assuming that the openAndReadAFile method uses the Java java.io.* classes to read a file and doesn’t catch its exceptions, attempting to open and read a file can result in both a FileNotFoundException and an IOException, and those two exceptions are caught in the catch block of this example.

← previous next →

Control Structures

The if/then/else construct

`end if` statement

`if`/`else` expressions always return a result

Aside: Expression-oriented programming

`for` loops

Multiple generators

Guards

Using `for` with Maps

`for` expressions

Using a `for` expression as the body of a method

`while` loops

`match` expressions

Using the default value

Handling multiple possible matches on one line

Using `if` guards in `case` clauses

Case classes and match expressions

Binding matched patterns to variables

Using a `match` expression as the body of a method

Match expressions support many different types of patterns

try/catch/finally

Contributors to this page:

Contents

Control Structures

The if/then/else construct

end if statement

if/else expressions always return a result

Aside: Expression-oriented programming

for loops

Multiple generators

Guards

Using for with Maps

for expressions

Using a for expression as the body of a method

while loops

match expressions

Using the default value

Handling multiple possible matches on one line

Using if guards in case clauses

Case classes and match expressions

Binding matched patterns to variables

Using a match expression as the body of a method

Match expressions support many different types of patterns

try/catch/finally

Contributors to this page:

Contents

`end if` statement

`if`/`else` expressions always return a result

`for` loops

Using `for` with Maps

`for` expressions

Using a `for` expression as the body of a method

`while` loops

`match` expressions

Using `if` guards in `case` clauses

Using a `match` expression as the body of a method